/*-------------------------------------------------------------------------
*
* checksum_impl . h
* Checksum implementation for data pages .
*
* This file exists for the benefit of external programs that may wish to
* check Postgres page checksums . They can # include this to get the code
* referenced by storage / checksum . h . ( Note : you may need to redefine
* Assert ( ) as empty to compile this successfully externally . )
*
* Portions Copyright ( c ) 1996 - 2025 , PostgreSQL Global Development Group
* Portions Copyright ( c ) 1994 , Regents of the University of California
*
* src / include / storage / checksum_impl . h
*
* - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
*/
/*
* The algorithm used to checksum pages is chosen for very fast calculation .
* Workloads where the database working set fits into OS file cache but not
* into shared buffers can read in pages at a very fast pace and the checksum
* algorithm itself can become the largest bottleneck .
*
* The checksum algorithm itself is based on the FNV - 1 a hash ( FNV is shorthand
* for Fowler / Noll / Vo ) . The primitive of a plain FNV - 1 a hash folds in data 1
* byte at a time according to the formula :
*
* hash = ( hash ^ value ) * FNV_PRIME
*
* FNV - 1 a algorithm is described at http : //www.isthe.com/chongo/tech/comp/fnv/
*
* PostgreSQL doesn ' t use FNV - 1 a hash directly because it has bad mixing of
* high bits - high order bits in input data only affect high order bits in
* output data . To resolve this we xor in the value prior to multiplication
* shifted right by 17 bits . The number 17 was chosen because it doesn ' t
* have common denominator with set bit positions in FNV_PRIME and empirically
* provides the fastest mixing for high order bits of final iterations quickly
* avalanche into lower positions . For performance reasons we choose to combine
* 4 bytes at a time . The actual hash formula used as the basis is :
*
* hash = ( hash ^ value ) * FNV_PRIME ^ ( ( hash ^ value ) > > 17 )
*
* The main bottleneck in this calculation is the multiplication latency . To
* hide the latency and to make use of SIMD parallelism multiple hash values
* are calculated in parallel . The page is treated as a 32 column two
* dimensional array of 32 bit values . Each column is aggregated separately
* into a partial checksum . Each partial checksum uses a different initial
* value ( offset basis in FNV terminology ) . The initial values actually used
* were chosen randomly , as the values themselves don ' t matter as much as that
* they are different and don ' t match anything in real data . After initializing
* partial checksums each value in the column is aggregated according to the
* above formula . Finally two more iterations of the formula are performed with
* value 0 to mix the bits of the last value added .
*
* The partial checksums are then folded together using xor to form a single
* 32 - bit checksum . The caller can safely reduce the value to 16 bits
* using modulo 2 ^ 16 - 1 . That will cause a very slight bias towards lower
* values but this is not significant for the performance of the
* checksum .
*
* The algorithm choice was based on what instructions are available in SIMD
* instruction sets . This meant that a fast and good algorithm needed to use
* multiplication as the main mixing operator . The simplest multiplication
* based checksum primitive is the one used by FNV . The prime used is chosen
* for good dispersion of values . It has no known simple patterns that result
* in collisions . Test of 5 - bit differentials of the primitive over 64 bit keys
* reveals no differentials with 3 or more values out of 100000 random keys
* colliding . Avalanche test shows that only high order bits of the last word
* have a bias . Tests of 1 - 4 uncorrelated bit errors , stray 0 and 0 xFF bytes ,
* overwriting page from random position to end with 0 bytes , and overwriting
* random segments of page with 0 x00 , 0 xFF and random data all show optimal
* 2 e - 16 false positive rate within margin of error .
*
* Vectorization of the algorithm requires 32 bit x 32 bit - > 32 bit integer
* multiplication instruction . As of 2013 the corresponding instruction is
* available on x86 SSE4 . 1 extensions ( pmulld ) and ARM NEON ( vmul . i32 ) .
* Vectorization requires a compiler to do the vectorization for us . For recent
* GCC versions the flags - msse4 . 1 - funroll - loops - ftree - vectorize are enough
* to achieve vectorization .
*
* The optimal amount of parallelism to use depends on CPU specific instruction
* latency , SIMD instruction width , throughput and the amount of registers
* available to hold intermediate state . Generally , more parallelism is better
* up to the point that state doesn ' t fit in registers and extra load - store
* instructions are needed to swap values in / out . The number chosen is a fixed
* part of the algorithm because changing the parallelism changes the checksum
* result .
*
* The parallelism number 32 was chosen based on the fact that it is the
* largest state that fits into architecturally visible x86 SSE registers while
* leaving some free registers for intermediate values . For future processors
* with 256 bit vector registers this will leave some performance on the table .
* When vectorization is not available it might be beneficial to restructure
* the computation to calculate a subset of the columns at a time and perform
* multiple passes to avoid register spilling . This optimization opportunity
* is not used . Current coding also assumes that the compiler has the ability
* to unroll the inner loop to avoid loop overhead and minimize register
* spilling . For less sophisticated compilers it might be beneficial to
* manually unroll the inner loop .
*/
#include "storage/bufpage.h"
/* number of checksums to calculate in parallel */
#define N_SUMS 32
/* prime multiplier of FNV-1a hash */
#define FNV_PRIME 16777619
/* Use a union so that this code is valid under strict aliasing */
typedef union
{
PageHeaderData phdr;
uint32 data[BLCKSZ / (sizeof (uint32) * N_SUMS)][N_SUMS];
} PGChecksummablePage;
/*
* Base offsets to initialize each of the parallel FNV hashes into a
* different initial state .
*/
static const uint32 checksumBaseOffsets[N_SUMS] = {
0 x5B1F36E9, 0 xB8525960, 0 x02AB50AA, 0 x1DE66D2A,
0 x79FF467A, 0 x9BB9F8A3, 0 x217E7CD2, 0 x83E13D2C,
0 xF8D4474F, 0 xE39EB970, 0 x42C6AE16, 0 x993216FA,
0 x7B093B5D, 0 x98DAFF3C, 0 xF718902A, 0 x0B1C9CDB,
0 xE58F764B, 0 x187636BC, 0 x5D7B3BB1, 0 xE73DE7DE,
0 x92BEC979, 0 xCCA6C0B2, 0 x304A0979, 0 x85AA43D4,
0 x783125BB, 0 x6CA8EAA2, 0 xE407EAC6, 0 x4B5CFC3E,
0 x9FBF8C76, 0 x15CA20BE, 0 xF2CA9FD3, 0 x959BD756
};
/*
* Calculate one round of the checksum .
*/
#define CHECKSUM_COMP(checksum, value) \
do { \
uint32 __tmp = (checksum) ^ (value); \
(checksum) = __tmp * FNV_PRIME ^ (__tmp >> 17 ); \
} while (0 )
/*
* Block checksum algorithm . The page must be adequately aligned
* ( at least on 4 - byte boundary ) .
*/
static uint32
pg_checksum_block(const PGChecksummablePage *page)
{
uint32 sums[N_SUMS];
uint32 result = 0 ;
uint32 i,
j;
/* ensure that the size is compatible with the algorithm */
Assert(sizeof (PGChecksummablePage) == BLCKSZ);
/* initialize partial checksums to their corresponding offsets */
memcpy(sums, checksumBaseOffsets, sizeof (checksumBaseOffsets));
/* main checksum calculation */
for (i = 0 ; i < (uint32) (BLCKSZ / (sizeof (uint32) * N_SUMS)); i++)
for (j = 0 ; j < N_SUMS; j++)
CHECKSUM_COMP(sums[j], page->data[i][j]);
/* finally add in two rounds of zeroes for additional mixing */
for (i = 0 ; i < 2 ; i++)
for (j = 0 ; j < N_SUMS; j++)
CHECKSUM_COMP(sums[j], 0 );
/* xor fold partial checksums together */
for (i = 0 ; i < N_SUMS; i++)
result ^= sums[i];
return result;
}
/*
* Compute the checksum for a Postgres page .
*
* The page must be adequately aligned ( at least on a 4 - byte boundary ) .
* Beware also that the checksum field of the page is transiently zeroed .
*
* The checksum includes the block number ( to detect the case where a page is
* somehow moved to a different location ) , the page header ( excluding the
* checksum itself ) , and the page data .
*/
uint16
pg_checksum_page(char *page, BlockNumber blkno)
{
PGChecksummablePage *cpage = (PGChecksummablePage *) page;
uint16 save_checksum;
uint32 checksum;
/* We only calculate the checksum for properly-initialized pages */
Assert(!PageIsNew((Page) page));
/*
* Save pd_checksum and temporarily set it to zero , so that the checksum
* calculation isn ' t affected by the old checksum stored on the page .
* Restore it after , because actually updating the checksum is NOT part of
* the API of this function .
*/
save_checksum = cpage->phdr.pd_checksum;
cpage->phdr.pd_checksum = 0 ;
checksum = pg_checksum_block(cpage);
cpage->phdr.pd_checksum = save_checksum;
/* Mix in the block number to detect transposed pages */
checksum ^= blkno;
/*
* Reduce to a uint16 ( to fit in the pd_checksum field ) with an offset of
* one . That avoids checksums of zero , which seems like a good idea .
*/
return (uint16) ((checksum % 65535 ) + 1 );
}
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